учебное пособие 3 курс градо. Пояснительная записка 8 unit 1 land use planning lesson 1
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Text 11C  Soil Erosion - Causes and Effects Erosion is a natural and continuous process. Soils are created through erosion of parent material and either local deposition elsewhere. Erosion is defined as the detachment or uptake, and transport over a certain distance of material of the upper layer of the earth crust by an agent, like water, wind or ice. This mass movement of soil particles is part of the process of soil degradation. Before erosion takes effect, the degradation process often has started with qualitative changes in the soil, like loss of nutrients, loss of organic materials, reduced soil life and loss of soil structure. Soil erosion is one of the forms of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter, and loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinization, and soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation, serious in themselves, usually contribute to accelerated soil erosion. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage network. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year in different countries. Water erosion depends on four factors: rainfall, soil type, slope gradient, and soil use/vegetation cover. Loss of soil structure becomes often most visible in encrustation of the soil. Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion problem. The impact of raindrop on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts might be required to move the larger sand and gravel particles. Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows excess surface water to infiltrate. Wind erosion less common, but again takes place after vegetation has been lost and when soil particles are loosened. Early signs of wind erosion include deposition of sand particles around plants and micro ripples on the surface of exposed areas. The final extreme is the classic sand desert dune structures. The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls are usually exposed and suffer the most. Sheet erosion is the most common form of erosion. Unprotected soil particles are loosened by trampling, through wind erosion and by the impact of rainfall. The soil particles are then transported by rainwater surface flow to the river and stream systems. Sheet erosion is characterized by a general lowering of the soil level, leaving raised pedestals where the root mass of the remaining vegetation protects it. Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff; it occurs rather uniformly over the slope and may go unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Rill erosion results when surface runoff concentrates forming small yet well-defined channels. These channels are called rills when they are small enough to not interfere with field machinery operations. The same eroded channels are known as gullies when they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage. Gully erosion is the most obvious and dramatic demonstration of erosion, although in most areas actually less significant in terms of total land degradation. Gully erosion rarely occurs without sheet erosion. It can also be triggered by erosion along livestock tracks, footpaths and road edges. The process can start with "rills" and end up with gullies that are tens of meters deep. There are farms that are losing large quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to fully erosion. Surface runoff, causing gull formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of fully banks, usually associated with seepage of ground water, leads to sloughing and slumping of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring months when the soil water conditions are most conductive to the problem. Poor construction, or inadequate maintenance, of surface drainage systems, uncontrolled livestock access, and cropping too close to both stream banks has led to bank erosion problems. The effects of soil erosion are complex. Some of the impacts may appear to be reversible by suitable soil conservation programmes and improving cultivation practices, whereas there are other types of degradation which are irreversible. The latter type includes land lost by gulling, or cases of severe sheet erosion where the soil cover has been removed to a great extent. In cases where degradation is reversible it is generally difficult to assess the actual extent and impact of land de-gradation as farmers do convert their land to less demanding uses or increase the level of inputs. Methodologies for prediction of soil erosion have been developed since the early thirties. Many farmers have already made significant progress in dealing with soil erosion problems on their farms. However, because of continued advances in soil management and crop production technology that have maintained or increased yields in spite of soil erosion, others have not been aware of the increasing problem on farmland. Awareness usually occurs only when property is damaged and productive areas of soil are lost. Certain conservation measures can reduce soil erosion by both water and wind. Tillage and cropping practices, as well as land management practices, directly affect the overall soil erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When crop rotation or changing tillage practices are not enough to control erosion on a field a combination of approaches or more extreme measures might be necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip cropping, or terracing may be considered. Lesson 12  EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS IN SOIL REMEDIATION 1. Прочтитеследующиеслова: Combustion, ignition, explosion, implicit, attenuation, hamper, priority, contamination, chemical, remediation, highlight, pollution, constraint, probability, delay, representation, cleaning-up, multifunctionality. 2. Прочтите и переведите следующие группы слов: Remediation strategy; pose no harm to humans; a growing awareness; chemical properties; planning constraint; dispersion of pollution; due to air emission; to restore multifunctionality; industrialized countries; increase in productivity; may hinder; specific developments; economic burden; environmental balance. 3. Запомните следующие слова и словосочетания: acceptability (n.) – допустимость additive (adj.) – добавочный, дополнительный aggregating (n.) – сбор, совокупление ambiguity (n.) – неопределённость, двусмысленность attenuation (n.) – уменьшение, истощение burden (n.) – бремя, груз, ноша challenge (v.) – вызывать, оспаривать, подвергать сомнению chemical properties – химические свойства combustion (n.) – окисление, сгорание compartment (n.) – отделение contaminated sites – загрязненные участки discretionary (adj.) – предоставленный на собственное усмотрение dispersion (n.) – разбросанность, рассеяние environmental performance – характеристика окружающей среды excavate – pumb – and – treat – помповые раскопки и обработка explosion (n.) – взрыв, вспышка exposure (n.) – подверженность (риску) fossil fuels – допотопное (неочищенное) горючее grasp (v.) – схватывать, понимать, воспринимать hamper (v.) – препятствовать ignition (n.) – воспламенение implicit (adj.) – безоговорочный, подразумеваемый indices (pl.) –(index) – показатели in terms of environmentаl merit – в смысле качества окружающей среды internalization of the values – (зд.) внутренняя стоимость issues (n.) – спорные вопросы merit (n.) – качество, существо net environmental benefit – чистая выгода для окружающей среды outcome (n.) – результат, выход, последствие performance (n.) – 1. характеристика, производительность; 2. коэффициент полезного действия; 3. выполнение publicly owner sites – участки, которыми владеет государство или общественность remediation (n.) – восстановление, лечение risk attenuation process – процесс уменьшения риска 4. Прочтите и переведите следующий текст: Text 12A  Soil Pollution Soil pollution has become a priority in many industrialized countries after the inventory of various locations in which contamination was posing a risk to people and the environment. The effects of soil contamination are different:
The ultimate objective of the operations is to eliminate the risk to a man and the environment and to prevent the dispersion of pollution that is to restore multifunctionality in the shortest possible time. Soil multifunctionality requires that the soil on the site after sanitation should pose no harm to humans, animals or plants, regardless of the use of the site, the type of soil, the type of pollutants and the local situation. This is a very demanding objective, totally driven by environmental quality considerations. There is, however, a growing awareness that other criteria should be included when assessing remediation strategies. One of the reasons is that the costs involved in multifunctional operations are no longer political defendable. There is also a growing recognition that clean – up operations do not necessarily leads to a positive environmental balance. Soil remediation requires the use of resources (like energy and clean water) and may lead to a net transfer of contamination to other compartments (for instance, due to air emissions). Therefore, the single perspective implied by the multifunctionality may result into an approach which disregards many relevant concerns for soil remediation. 5. Найдите синонимы среди следующих слов: Properties, hinder, embrace, cover, purpose, merely, aim, characteristics, hamper, simply, aim, objectives. 6. Найдите антонимы среди следующих слов: Directly, timely, private, unnecessarily, negative, said, public, positive, unregistered, untimely, systematic, indirectly, necessary, un-said, registered, haphazard. 7. Переведите следующие сочетания слов с русского на английский язык: Загрязнение почвы; непосредственная подверженность; повышение производительности; растущая осведомленность; землепользование; восстановление почвы; самое короткое время; тяжелое экономическое бремя; источник риска; операции по очистке. 8. Переведите следующие предложения с русского на английский язык: 1. Расходы на восстановление не предполагают никакого повышения в производительности. 2. Почвенная многофункциональность требует очистки почвы. 3. Загрязнение почвы – источник риска для земляных работ. 4. Конечная цель операции – устранить риск человека и окружающей среды. 5. Очень важно предотвратить распространение загрязнения. 6. Невозможно ограничить функциональность почвы. 7. Баланс восстановления окружающей среды не может быть всегда положительным. 9. Образуйте имена существительные от следующих глаголов: To interpret, to know, to apply, to assume, to pollute, to consider, to recognize, to combine, to evaluate, to assess, to value, to represent, to attach, to provide, to achieve, to depend, to treat. 10. Составьте предложения, используя следующие слова: 1. Requires, process, the, of, use, resources, remediation, natural. 2. Awareness, been, a, has, achieved, growing. 3. Multifunctionality, aimed, at, are, measures, these. 4. Computed, yearly, are, costs. 5. Clean-up, of, operations, Merit, the, based, are, evaluation, an, on, Environmental, Index. 6. Through, interviews, assessed, weights, are. 7. Approaches, some, are, fundamental, there. 11. Заполнитепропускипредлогами: 1. The overall environmental balance ... remediation may not be always positive. 2. The application ... remediation techniques may significantly cut costs, although leave many sites polluted ... a considerable time. 3. These factors are the negative side ... the remediation. 4. ... clean-up polluted soil is necessary. 5. Remediation expenditures do not offer any increase ... productivity. 12. Поставьтеккаждомупредложениюмаксимальноечисловопросов: 1. Soil pollution is a source of risk. 2. The presence of polluted areas may delay some specific developments. 3. To eliminate the risk to a man is the ultimate aim of the operations. 4. One should assess remediation strategy. 5. Clean – up operations lead to a positive environmental balance. 13. Перепишите предложения, заменив модальные глаголы эквивалентами. Переведитеихнарусскийязык: 1. Soil remediation can lead to a net transfer of contamination to other compartments. 2. The polluted areas must delay some specific developments. 3. Scientists can consider multifunctionality as the soil related interpretation of sustainability. 4. This framework could show how to combine risk reduction. 5. In order to respond to the application need a more comprehensive evaluation framework must be considered. 14. Поставьте 10 специальных вопросов к тексту 12A. 15. Перескажите текст 12A. 16. Прочитайте текст 12В, переведите и сформулируйте основную мысль каждого абзаца: Text 12B  A Framework for Evaluation The decision on how to clean-up a site can be divided into several successive phases. The first decision is that of whether a polluted site needs to be cleaned up. If remediation is not necessary, then the investigations can be stopped. Otherwise, the investigations should be focused on the screening of the suitable remedial strategies. The criteria which will influence this last decision are:
This perspective is the closest to the original evaluation framework aiming at multifunctionality. The environmental merit perspective, stemming from a Life Cycle Inventory approach, aims at minimizing the use of scarce commodities and the contamination of other compartments due to remedial activities. The costs perspective aims at minimizing the total costs in terms of net present value. The methodology aims at producing, for each cleaning – up option, a set of 3 indices: the amount of risk reduction achieved by the remediation; the environmental balance of the operations and the costs involved. Risk reduction is based on the computation of the overall exposure of people, ecosystems and other targets (e.g. workers on the site during remediation) and at the comparison of the exposure levels with acceptability standards. Risks are computed during all phases of the operations, leading to a time-dependent profile of the risk attenuation process. By combating this to the risk profile of the status quo, the amount of risk reduction can be computed. Environmental merit is based on the computation of an additive index for multiple environmental consequences of soil remediation. The non – local positive and negative outcomes of soil clean-up are weighted and summed up leading to an indication of the environmental performance of the operations. These are compared again to the status quo. The index is here measured in Environmental Merit Units. Finally, the costs include all expenses involved in the operations, including asset costs. Costs are computed yearly for the full length of the operations. The Net Present Value is then used as an estimate of the total costs. Each cost item is the sum of the expected expenses in a given period plus a safety quantity to guarantee that the real costs will have only a limited probability of exceeding the computed costs. 17. Прочтите и переведите текст 12C и раскройте содержание рассматриваемых в нем проблем: Text 12C  The Environmental Merit Perspective The rationale behind the Environmental Merit Perspective is that clean – up operations determine environmental costs and benefits beyond those encompassed by the risk assessment. A clean – up operation may result into the use of scarce resources, such as energy; transfer the pollution to other compartments, such as emissions to surface water during operations, and to secondary effects, like the emission of greenhouse gases due to combustion of fossil fuels. These consequences cannot be grasped by neither the risk analysis, or by the traditional financial assessment carried out before remediation. This cost assessment usually does not include valuation of environmental goods, and thus internalization of the values of environmental resources. The evaluation of clean – up operations in terms of environmental merit is based on an Environmental Merit Index (EMI). This index is constructed by rating the performances of clean – up options against a list of measurable aspects and by aggregating these performances with a weighting scheme. The environmental merit perspective aims at quantifying the performances of candidate cleaning – up options along these evaluation criteria. These results of environmental performances are based on the comparison of alternatives. Since these criteria largely represent independent concerns for the cleaning – up operations, the approach through additive value functions can be applied. The overall environmental quality of a remedial option is a weighted combination of the different performances. Intuitively, weights represent the relative importance of one attribute compared to another. The higher the weight attached to an aspect, the more the aspect drives the evaluation. Weights are assessed through interviews. Precise question answer protocols are used to ensure that the respondent provides weights which are a true representation of his/her decision strategy. There are fundamental questions raised by this approach to environmental merit: 1. Does the current practice of soil remediation lead to a positive balance for the environment? 2. Who and how many experts should be interviewed? 3. Are the differences in option across experts significant for the evaluation? The use of an environmental merit index shows that the environmental balance of soil cleaning – up cannot be assumed to be positive in all cases. Instead, it should be considered as an objective of the cleaning – up operations to be achieved by carefully designing remedial activities. Использованная литература 1. Агабекян И.П, Коваленко П.И. Английский для инженеров Феникс, 2013г. 320 с. 2. Баракова, М.Я. Английский язык для горных инженеров. – М. : Высшая школа, 2001г. 288 с. 3. Веселовская Н.Г. Английский язык для специальностей «Землеустройство» и «Земельный кадастр» Land and Cadastres : учебное пособие — М. : Издательский центр «Академия», 2009. — 208 с. 4. Славина, Г.И. Аннотирование и реферирование : учеб. пособие по английскому языку / Г.И. Славина, З.С. Харьковский, Е.А. Антонова, М.А. Рыбакина. – М. : Высшая школа, 2008г. 193 с. Интернет-источник https://www.encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com  перейти в каталог файлов | Образовательный портал Как узнать результаты егэ Стихи про летний лагерь 3агадки для детей |