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учебное пособие 3 курс градо. Пояснительная записка 8 unit 1 land use planning lesson 1
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General Trends Today's European cadastral/land registration systems are all strongly influenced by the land information concept. In short, the main 61 trends can be expressed in the following terms: multiple uses, automation, geocodes and digitization. The cadastre and the land register were each originally designed for one purpose: taxation and security in rights. But almost from the very start, the information provided and the maps produced were found to be very useful for other purposes as well. Only during recent decades, however, this point has been stressed in the technical design of cadastres and land register. Modern society has developed into an information society, which both requires, and has the ability to produce accurate information. However, if the information is to be convenient to handle, it must be linked to identifiable spatial units. The cadastral land unit is one such unit which is a suitable basis for much information – not only concerning the land itself, but also the people living on the land and many of their activities. This does not, however, mean that cadastre/land register them-selves should contain the necessary land information. On the contrary, all experience shows that both cadastres and land registers should be kept simple, and concentrated only on the data required for their particular purposes. The essential thing is the uniquely defined land unit, which can be used as a key for integrating many different records, thus making available a vast amount of relevant land information. It is, however, difficult to achieve such a high level of integration when all records are kept manually. Two records such as a cadastre and a land register could certainly be made to influence each other considerably, and to function as one source of information. But in or-der to advance from here to an efficient, fully integrated system consisting of several different subsystems, automation is essential. Lesson 7  RUSSIAN CADASTRAL SURVEYS BEFORE AND AFTER PETER THE GREAT 1. Прочитайтеследующиеслова: Epoch, sense, appreciate, well-known, magnificent, justify, cruel, compare, obligation, estate, century, peasant, wealthy, waterway, staff, medieval, similarity, archival, tremendous. 2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие группы слов: Few geographical surveys of cadastral character; late descriptions; introspective Moscow Rus; Great Reformer; pre – Petrine Russian culture; imperial ideology; the changes in the nature of a cadastre; feudal tax cadastre; low density; abundance of agricultural resources; unsuccessful attempts; hunting estates of tsars; vassal obligations; poll tax. 3. Запомните следующие слова и словосочетания: ancient (adj.) – древний, античный apiary (n.) – пасека arable soil – пахотная почва archbishop (n.) – архиепископ at least (adj.) – по меньшей мере attract (v.) – привлекать be unable to satisfy – быть не в состоянии удовлетворить carefully (adv.) – тщательно, аккуратно, заботливо contemporary (n.) – современник depend on prosperity – зависеть от процветания due to (prep.) – из-за, благодаря (чему-то) еndless forests – бескрайние леса feudal state – феодальное государство foreign ambassador – иностранный посол forest doomsday – судный день леса go astray – заблудиться hayfield land – сенокос, луг hereditary estates – наследственные состояния hunting estates – охотничьи угодья indirect evidence – косвенное доказательство in order to compare – для того, чтобы сравнить introspective (adj.) – самосозерцательная land taxes – земельные налоги lime-tree (n.) – липа march (n.) – болото medieval (adj.) – средневековый merciless (adj.) – беспощадный middle ages – средние века mutual dependence – взаимная зависимость noble (adj) – благородный, дворянский old-fashioned methods – старомодные методы orthodox faith – православная вера pine (n.) – сосна poll tax – подушный налог presume (v.) – предполагать, допускать resist (v.) – сопротивляться rural parish – сельский округ serfdom (n.) – крепостное право timber (n.) – лесоматериал, древесина treat (v.) – (зд.) рассматривать treaty (n.) – договор turning point – поворотный момент unequal duties – неравные пошлины virgin forests – девственные леса 4. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст: Text 7A  Review of the Russian Medieval Cadaster The Russian medieval cadastres had been a kind of routine regular survey. Land descriptions of the whole state or separate provinces were planned and fulfilled by the staff of the Estate Administration. Each expedition sent by an administrative unit to collect land use data included at least two senior officials (usually an experienced chancery official and a wealthy aristocrat) and few junior officials for whom it was a kind of practice. All the expeditions received special written orders from the tzar and had the right to check land property documents, to solve land disputes of local landlords, in some cases even to confiscate estate. These decisions could be changed only by the special tzar orders. A record in the cadastral book had usually been the best proof of property rights. The cadastral officials used to compare contemporary land use with the documents of the previous survey. That is why it is often possible to find brief data of a previous survey in the books of the next one. From the end of the XV-th century Pomestny Prikaz (Administration of Estates) undertook regular surveys of the lands of Moscow State. During these surveys there were created descriptions of the whole state and its separate provinces. These descriptions (pistsovye knigi) included a number of peasants in each village of the estate, quantity of arable and meadowlands, approximate data on forests. Being improved from one survey to another, late descriptions of the 66 XVII-th century demonstrate distinguished and complicated feudal tax cadastre. They evaluated land estates in two – steps way taking into consideration quantity of productive arable lands measured in a very accurate way. Next step was the evaluation of arable soil quality: good, medium or poor. After that the data on quality had been recalculated in exact proportion into special units of agricultural productivity of the estate. Land taxes and vassal obligations served as the basement of administrative, financial and military life of the Moscow State in the XVI – XVII-th centuries. These duties were determined in accordance with the quantity and feudal status of land holding and its agricultural value. The state itself did not carry out any important economic projects. Stability of central administration, power and wealth of Moscow state depended on prosperity of peasantry paying taxes and landlords serving for the state with their vassal. Surveyors took into consideration feudal status of the land holding they described. The data on agricultural productivity of estates had been recalculated once more into special tax units (sokha) in order to reflect status of the landlords. Land cadastre of that period had been the tax cadastre – evaluation of settled and exploited lands. It dealt with arable and hayfield lands, sometimes with fisheries, apiaries, hunting estates of tzars. Virgin forests, empty lands and marches attracted no attention of estate surveyors. This situation reflected abundance of agricultural resources and low density of peasant population. This shows the level of geographical knowledge of that period: despite the fact that major waterways and roads had been described and well-known, contemporaries of Ivan the Terrible or Boris Godunov seemed to be unaware of endless Russian forests as foreign ambassadors and merchants had been on their way to the capital of Moscovy. Contemporary documents showed that even wealthy native aristocracy could go astray while travelling in the forests of the Central Russia. Besides numerous surveys carried out by the Moscow Administration of Estates, many wealthy landlords compiled cadastral descriptions of their lands: sovereign Great Princes, Archbishops, monasteries. The system of a land cadastre of the XVI – XVII-th centuries used the old-fashioned methods of direct land measuring in area units when 67 contemporary European countries began to use land charts and maps. But there existed a couple of archival documents showing the use of charts and plans in medieval cadastres. The general level of mapmaking could be seen from the published translations of books on geometry and land measuring, allowed at least to presume the technical possibility of the brief land mapping of Central Russia. All this proves the similarity of medieval Russian land cadastres and continental cadastral system. 5. Найдите синонимы среди следующих слов: Impact, link, lucky, purpose, successfully, accurate, influence, objective, connect, exact. 6. Образуйте антонимы от данных слов: Large, successful, little, natural, appropriate, rural, use, expensive, weak. 7. Переведите следующие сочетания слов с русского на английский язык: Отражать всю картину; хорошо известная точка зрения; подушный налог; природа и цели кадастра; сложный феодальный налоговый кадастр; обязанности вассала; тщательно изучать; власть и богатство; пересчитать в точной пропорции; средневековая аристократия; количество крестьян; собирать данные по землепользованию; изданные переводы книг; косвенные доказательства. 8. Переведите следующие предложения с русского на английский язык: 1. Европейское влияние было огромным. 2. Православная вера популярна в России. 3. Государство выполняло самые важные экономические проекты. 4. Самые поздние описания кадастра XVII века демонстрировали сложный феодальный налоговый кадастр. 5. Раньше они описывали земельные угодья в две ступени. 6. Эти описания включали количество крестьян в каждой деревне, качество пахотной земли и лугов. 7. Этот текст сравнивает кадастр двух столетий. 8. Кадастр земли средневекового периода – налоговый кадастр. 9. Запишите прописью следующие количественные числительные, хронологические даты и дроби: 16, 89, 154, 985, 2841, 3462, 5816, 99852, 186954, 1861083; 1/8, 3/4, 2/3, 1/3; 0,05; 1,6; 0,007; 1942, 2001, 1957, 1992, 1996, 2004. 10. Образуйте 3 степени сравнения следующих прилагательных: Good, big, important, beautiful, little, far, many, bad, easy, complicated, friendly, nice, fine, difficult, interesting, high. 11. Раскройте скобки, употребляя имена прилагательные в соответствующей степени сравнения: 1. A record in the cadastral book had usually been the (good) proof of property rights. 2. (Late) descriptions of the XYII-th century demonstrate distinguished and complicated feudal tax cadastre. 3. The arable lands measured in a very (accurate) way. 4. The (good) the service, the (easy) the life. 5. This is the (magnificent) project on the forest cadastre I have ever seen. 12. Образуйте однокоренные слова от следующих слов: Manage, regular, collect, implement, work, operate, publish, change, press, satisfy. 13. Укажите исходную форму прилагательных и составьте предложения: Less, many, better, worst, more, interesting, more difficult, beautiful, the most different, farther, the most. 14. Ответьте на следующие вопросы по тексту: 1. What is this text devoted to? 2. What kind of cadastres were the Russian medieval ones? 3. What did Pomestny Prikaz undertake at the end of the XY th century? 4. What did description of land include? 5. How were land taxes and vassal obligations serve? 6. Did the state carry out any important economic projects? 7. What did the Russian medieval cadastre deal to? 8. Is the similarity of the medieval Russian land cadastre and continental cadastral system proved by any documents of that time? 15. Перескажите текст 7А. 16. Прочитайте, переведите текст 7В: Text 7B  Changes in Russian Cadastre An epoch of Peter I is a turning point in the Russian history. But the character of the changes is more difficult to be defined. The well-known view of Petеr's reign as westernization, the turn from Asian, stagnant, introspective Moscow Rus towards the Europe of the New Ages does not reflect the whole picture. The European influence was great indeed, but something in the nature of the Russian state the Great Reformer left does not allow considering it European in full sense of the word. The historical studies at the beginning of the XXI-st century showed that there had been much in common between the social institutions of Middle Ages Moscow Rus and Western Europe, especially in the social organization of rural parish. Russian philosophers of the XIX-th century stated that a totally original character of pre – Petrine Russian culture, society and state had greatly differed from the European ones. The reasons for it can be seen either in endless forestry plains of ancient Russia or in specific character of Orthodox faith. The first Emperor of Russia had been responsible for the start of magnificent projects of state building, imperial ideology and merciless way of bringing all this into practice. Some authors tried to justify the cruel methods, which were too well known to him. Such interpretation of the history was more or less appreciated by the official ideology. One could understand the desire to reexamine the epoch of Peter the Great today, when the same facts could be seen as different in the mirror of current changes in Russia. Certainly, the historical facts of this period had been already carefully studied, though important archival documents and facts could be discovered yet. Comparing the Russian cadastral surveys of the XVI – XVII-th centuries with those of the XVIII-th century one can follow the changes in the nature and purposes of the cadastre. The XVI – XVII-th centuries "pistsovye knigi" have changed into documents and maps of land and forest cadastres and few other geographical surveys of cadastral character in the XVIII-th century. Land tax had been replaced with poll tax. Despite this old feudal system remained untouched and the Moscow government continued to collect statistical descriptions of its principality in order to check the fulfillment of vassals dues and for distribution of empty lands. The last important action of the Administration of Estates of that period had been the Total Bordering (Valovoye Mezhevaniye) which examined all administrative units of contemporary Moscow tsardom. For the first time the aim was set of state bordering and not only of measuring. It was connected with transformation of farming system with the stable borders of parcels and estates. At the same time this aim showed the new level of geographical knowledge and demand. 17. Прочитайте текст 7С, переведите его и раскройте содержание рассматриваемых в нем проблем. Text 7C  Peter's Reforms Before Peter the Great land relations in the Moscow state did not lose its feudal nature. It means tight mutual dependence of central government, peasantry, aristocracy, nobility, dependence of Moscow from the economic development of the territories and prosperity of all estates, elements of self-governing of administrative units. A kind of legal treaty between the tsar and landlords formed the basement of the civil and military service and financial system. All this is an indirect evidence of classes representative system – a kind of feudal "democracy". This was the system replaced by the tsar – reformer. Peter's reforms meant the end of the old order. State building projects of Peter I, his political and economic projects, building of navy and re-organization of the army, mining and industry development, studying of the natural waterways and projects of channels – all this caused the centralization of power, unknown before. The old order of state and military service were unable to satisfy the growing demands for qualified and numerous authorities corresponding to the complexity of the aims of the reign. But one of the main things was the impossibility of feudal system to answer the increasing demand for civil and military staff due to the decreasing land resources, which served as the "payment" for state service earlier. Politically weak vassal and tax classes were unable to resist the energy of the tsar. The state economy, pressed by necessity of urgent changes, increased day by day. Practically all economic projects (including military) had been based on the rich resources belonging to the state or quasistate enterprises with forests, mines and slaves enclosed to them, such as baron Stroganov's tremendous estate in Siberia or – some time later – Demidov's iron plants in Ural Mountains. The demand for natural resources was growing constantly. The forests were to satisfy the needs of navy and metallurgic industry, peasantry should also serve as a resource for magnificent state building. Peter's conception of modernization did not care about the majority of Russians. The rights of the classes had been strongly restricted, the basement of common rights regulating the relations between vassals and supreme power decreased. The development of serfdom and growing pressure of peasant commons against the individuals is often seen as the result of Peter's reform. It is obvious that Peter's reforms have risen from the urgent demands of state management during the war. Peter I had no definite concept of "westernization". One can hardly believe that this practically – minded man could be interested in the largely abstract ideas of introducing the foreign culture as well as different social, administrative and management methods.  перейти в каталог файлов | Образовательный портал Как узнать результаты егэ Стихи про летний лагерь 3агадки для детей |